Marx and the Communist Movement Essay - 922 Words

Marx and the Communist Movement The Communist Manifesto, written by Karl Marx and Fredrich Engels, has become one of the worlds most influential and significant pieces of political propaganda ever written. It contains the viewpoints and ideology of the world-view that Marx and Engels had come to know from their political involvement from the previous years. Published in 1848, in a time of European revolution, the Manifesto is an incisive summary of the Marxist vision and outlines the foundation of the Marxist movement. According to Marx, four stages of human development exist. In the beginning of social development there is slavery where political and social freedoms are non-existent. The second stage of development, known†¦show more content†¦Thus, the working class or proletarians, grow in number and political awareness, and according to the Manifesto, generate inevitable revolution. Though Marx does not specifically describe the steps of transformation from one stage to another, he does give strong allusion and assumption to a political and social revolution. Marx, through political involvement, witnessed the third social stage of development known as capitalism. In this Marx came to see the world system as a whole and recognized the many evils of capitalism. Marx saw capitalism as the worst stage of human and social development, for its foundation lay in the oppression of the working class. These social evils were numerous; the most important were the class antagonisms set upon the masses or proletariats. Therefore the bourgeois remained the only class that was financially and physically well off. The capitalist society reduced the family to a à ¬mere money relation,à ® and thus increased urban population causing a momentary stalemate due to the overabundance in subsistence, industry, and commerce. The capitalist society also substituted brutal exploitation for morals and money. This caused the capitalist society to grow too large for its own good, forcing the bourgeois to either destroy what they have created and start over, or leave and form a new settlement for markets; both of which left theShow MoreRelatedDifferent Ideologies in Marx and Engels Communist Manifesto1085 Words   |  5 PagesThe Communist Manifesto Communism movements were revolutionary or proletarian movements that were inspired by the ideas of Marxism concerning the social inequality that was a major concern in the 19th century. These revolutions aimed at replacing the then dominant capitalist era with socialism. Communism was driven by the ideas of Marx and suggested that the workers of the world were to be united and free themselves from the capitalist oppression, and this was to create a world run by the workingRead More Karl Marx And The Communist Manifesto Essay example901 Words   |  4 PagesKarl Marx And The Communist Manifesto Because the first printing of the Communist Manifesto was limited and the circulation restricted, the Manifesto did not have much impact on society after it was written in 1848. This meant that there were not many people who had access to the document. It wasn’t until 1871, when the Paris Commune occurred, that the Communist Manifesto began to have a huge impact on the working class all over the world.[i] The Paris Commune, whichRead MoreThe Communist Manifesto Essay747 Words   |  3 Pages The Communist Manifesto opens with the famous words quot;The history of all hitherto societies has been the history of class struggles.† In section 1, quot;Bourgeois and Proletarians,quot; Marx delineates his vision of history, focusing on the development and eventual destruction of the bourgeoisie, the middle class. Before the bourgeoisie rose to prominence, society was organized according to a feudal order run by aristocratic landowners and corporate guilds. With the discovery of America andRead MoreA Summary Of The Communist Manifesto Marx1323 Words   |  6 PagesIn the Communist Manifesto Marx, explained the historical class struggles that each society had encountered since the beginning of time. Class resemblances are usually, the oppressor and the oppressed on opposite sides and classes with various orders of complicated arrangements (p.15). Marx’s believed that h is society has not left the class antagonism from earlier times such as the Ancient Roman’s, however, enforced new classes with new conditions and struggles for the oppressed individuals, in placeRead More A Summary of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx Essays1571 Words   |  7 PagesA Summary of the Communist Manifesto by Karl Marx Karl Marx was an idealist. He observed the cruelties and injustices that the poor working class endured during the period of industrial revolution, and was inspired to write of a society in which no oppression existed for any class of people. Marx believed in a revolution that would end socialism and capitalism, and focus on communist principles. The Manifesto of the Communist Party, written by Karl Marx and edited by Frederick Engels, describesRead More The Death of Communism828 Words   |  4 PagesThe Death of Communism The United States longest and bloodiest war was the Vietnam War, which was fought from 1959 until 1975.(Communist Manifesto 1) In this war 57,685 Americans were killed, and their were over 2 million Vietnamese deaths.(Communist Manifesto 3) One of the main causes of the war was a commonly held American belief called the Domino Theory. This theory stated that if the U.S. allowed one country to fall to communism, those around it would fall, and then those around it, eventuallyRead MoreMarx And Engels : The Communist Manifesto896 Words   |  4 PagesThe Communist Manifesto had little influence when it was first published, in 1848. Marx and Engels start out the document with the phrase, â€Å"[a] specter is haunting Europe – the specter of communism† (Marx and Engels, 14). Marx and Engels are referring to the fear of communism that was spreading in Europe. The fear towards communism, first surfaced by groups that were attempting to flaunt enormous power, saw the risk of t heir interests being affected; therefore, they promoted a generalized panic thatRead MoreKarl Marx And Friedrich Engels974 Words   |  4 Pagesdocument has had such far reaching effect as Karl Marx’s, Communist Manifesto. The Communist Manifesto, hereafter referred to as the CM, was published in London, 1848 and served as the culmination of the collaboration between Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. The CM was to serve as the basis for the communist platform, a political system which, in Marx’s and Engel’s view, served as the final destination in the natural progression of society. Marx attributed this progression to the idea that â€Å"class struggle†Read MoreThe Influence of the Communist Manifesto on the Development of Industrial Capitalism1249 Words   |  5 Pages The Communist Manifesto left a tremendous impact on a society that was rapidly becoming industrialized, and its effects can even be seen on the dominating economic system of the twenty-first century. In the later nineteenth century, however, industrial capitalism was on the brink of ruin. â€Å"On many occasions during the past century, Marxists have thought that capitalism was down for the count . . . Yet it has always come back with renewed strength.† Industrial capitalism succeeded in the faceRead More Comparing Reactions to Industrialism in Frankenstein and The Communist Manifesto1116 Words   |  5 PagesIndustrialism in Frankenstein and The Communist Manifesto      Ã‚   The radical changes of the nineteenth century were unlike any the world had seen before. A sense of these changes were felt by all in many aspects; not just politically, but in social and cultural means as well. When Mary Shelleys Frankenstein was published in 1831, it was clear that many general elements of the romantic era were well reflected. Similarly, Karl Marx and Frederick Engels The Communist Manifesto appeared in 1848, a

Essay on The Art of Benin - 1045 Words

Western attitudes to African people and culture have always affected how their art was appreciated and this has also coloured the response to the art from Benin. Over time concepts of ‘Race’, defined as a distinct group with a common linage, and ‘Primitive’ which pertains to the beginning or origin, , have been inextricably linked with the perception of Africa. The confusion of the two in the minds of people at the end of the 19th centaury, and some of the 20th, caused a sense of superiority amongst the ‘White Races’ that affected every aspect of their interaction with ‘the Black’. The ‘Civilisation’ of Africa by conquest and force was justified by these views. The definition of ‘Negro’ in the Encyclopaedia Britannia just 100 years†¦show more content†¦(Duerden, 1974, p83). In the same way the ruins called Great Zimbabwe, discovered in 1871, were attributed to the Queen of Sheba. The pieces were consigned to such anthropological museums as The Pitt Rivers Museum, Oxford where objects were often placed in crowded cases and displayed as an indication of how African art could be ‘improved’ by contact with the West. At the turn of the centaury African art was discovered by Western artists hungry for inspiration to react against the status quo. Much as Cezanne had attempted to replace the representational landscape and still life with a more expressionist style so Picasso and other avant-garde painters tried to illustrate ‘basic artistic truths in their work by utilising what they considered to be the very origins of art portrayed in the ‘primitive’ pieces from Africa. Not concerned with the aesthetic or cultural value of what they found, artists were far more interested in what appeared to them to be the fundamental expression of basic emotions. By the 30’s Primitivism had become a major, mainstream movement that included Cubism and Abstract Art and merited major exhibitions such as New York in1936. The definition of the movement in 1938 by Robert Goldwater stated: ‘the assumption that the fu rther one goes back – historically, psychologically or aesthetically – theShow MoreRelatedThe Art of Benin Essay954 Words   |  4 PagesWhy is the ownership of Benin Art so controversial? The ownership of Benin Art could have been so controversial for a number of reasons. Most notably I would say, is due to the Anthropologists seeing it as a cultural insight into the history of Benin however when people were introduced to start looking at the artefacts from also a more artistic approach, this, for the anthropologists was taking the cultural effect away from it. Some people may have felt hostile to how these artefacts were obtainedRead More Benin Art in Museums and Galleries Essay1408 Words   |  6 PagesThe display of Benin art in museum and galleries reflect the attitudes and perceptions of Europeans towards non-western artefacts, especially African. Thus as European attitudes change towards non-western art since the discovery of Benin art in 1897, Benin art has been revaluated and re-categorised. Initially there was a great deal of debate about Benin art and its display, as it did not equate with the perceptions then held about Africa. Until the British conquest of Benin in 1897, little wasRead MoreCultural Encounters : Cultural Encounter, Anthropology And Art1007 Words   |  5 Pages Culture encounters â€Å"Art simply consists of Different points of view† Cultural Encounters focuses on the study of cultural identities interpreting human social costumes, religious practices and symbolic objects of arts such as, statues, masks and bronze plaques as essential part of the human cultural identity. {1}Ethnography is a method of Anthropology which is â€Å"a branch of natural sciences concerned with the study of mankind through a close analysis of human society and through comparison betweenRead MoreHow The Ghana Is Influenced By African Art1493 Words   |  6 Pageshow the Benin is able to concept the uncivilised nature of African societies. We will also look at the relationship between the Benin Bronzes, as African art, rather than modern art in the west. We know that the Benin bronzes are known to be of ‘aesthetic’, ‘spiritual’ and ‘sentimental’ value due to its symbolic appraisal of civilisation. They are also one of the most sophistica ted pieces of art. When looking into the African heritage, we can note it has a vast impact on the modern art world - artistsRead MoreEssay about The Benin Bronzes1663 Words   |  7 PagesThis essay deals with the nature of a cross cultural encounter between the Benin people and Portuguese traders in the 15th and 16th centuries, which resulted in the depiction of Portuguese figures in Benin brass plaques. It will propose that this contact between people with different cultures was on the basis of mutual regard (Woods, K. 2008, p. 16), and although the Portuguese had qualms about idolatry in Benin it will show that assumptions by Europeans up to the 20th century of the primitiveRead MoreRead Carefully the Following Piece of Text. What Does It Tell Us About Cross Cultural Encounters?1128 Words   |  5 Pagesnew vice-consul for the Benin river section Captain Henry Gallwey visited Benin and signed a treaty which made Benin a British protectorate, but as far as the British were concerned the treaty pr oved disappointing and by 1896 many British traders and officials were calling for military intervention, although the foreign office seemed reluctant to do this. On January 2nd 1897 the acting consul-general of the protectorate James Phillips set off without permission for Benin accompanied by a large armedRead MoreVisual and Cultural Art1001 Words   |  4 PagesFor my visual and cultural arts essay I visited the James E Lewis museum at Morgan State University. For my essay I have selected key pieces of art that I believe express the African experience in terms of their social, ethnographical and theological beliefs. This paper will also attempt to draw a comparison to key themes features in the African Creation myths, which will further elucidate the meanings hidden in these various works of art. It is my belief that this paper will not only serve as aRead MoreEssay about Art of Portraiture831 Words   |  4 Pagesart of portraiture The three works that I chose that are art of portraiture are Head of a King, Mask of an Lyoba, and Mother Goddess. The first two portraits are West African Art from two different tribes, Ife, who created the Head of a King and Benin, whom created the Mask of an Lyoba. The Mother Goddess is an Aztec piece. These groups of people are from different cultures, time periods, and share different religious beliefs. The similarity of the groups is the symbolic meaning the Read MoreAfrican Art Collections at Museums: The Bronze Heads of Leaders and King1263 Words   |  5 Pagesunable to attend the museums in New York I was able to go to the Museum of Fine Arts in Boston and The Smithsonian Natural History Museum in Washington D.C. While I was at both museums I saw that both African art collections had a number of bronze heads of leaders and kings. I noticed that both museums had almost the identical bronze head of the king, so I decided to dedicate this paper on the bronze heads of the Benin kingdom, and the Edo peoples. The bronze head to the upper left is the commemorativeRead MoreAn Essential Part Of Ghana African Culture1301 Words   |  6 Pages Waist pendants were an essential part of the Benin African culture. Benin was located in modern day Nigeria, and they had a very advanced culture with various resources. The Benin Kingdom mainly existed between the years 1440-1897 before the invasion from British soldiers, and is the capitol of the former Edo Kingdom. The city of Benin still exists today. The head of the Benin kingdom was called an oba, which translates to King, and was highly revered.1 Many brass and ivory carvings of the oba

Articles Cross-Examination In Summary Trial Essay Sample free essay sample

Cross-examination is a really of import procedure in drumhead test. The chief object of cross-examination is to happen the truth and desertion of falsity in human testimony. It is design to destruct or weaken the force of grounds a informant has already given in individual or arouse something into your favor which he has non stated to discredit him by demoing object of cross-examination from a litigious point of view. Whether a prosecution informant one time had impeachment proceeding completed against him. ought to be still cross examined by the defense mechanism advocate or non? The affair about the cross-examined has been stated in the subdivision 173 ( vitamin E ) of the Criminal Procedure Code. Section 173 ( vitamin E ) of the CPC stated that: ( vitamin E ) The accused shall be allowed to cross-examine all the informants for the prosecution. So. we can see that this subdivision makes proviso for the accused to cross-examine all informants for the prosecution. Okay. that is the basic. Denial of chance to the accused to cross-examine the prosecution informant will be an improper exercising of judicial discretion and will amount to miscarriage of justness [ 1 ] . It is banal that there is an duty on the defense mechanism during the phase of cross-examination to set all inquiry that are relevant and known to the peculiar informant. which the accused intends to trust upon his defense mechanism to enable the informant a opportunity to hold or differ with the defense mechanism instance. [ 2 ] The job is whether the defense mechanism advocate besides can still cross-examine the prosecution informant although the impeachment proceeding has been completed against him. Actually in pattern. our tribunals have been really broad and does non deny or interfere in cross-examination. To the recognition. of our tribunals. notwithstanding. there is no express proviso to postpone cross-examination. Our tribunals have permitted the cross scrutiny of any informant to be deferred until any other informants to be recalled for farther cross scrutiny. If we look at the Evidence Act 1950. subdivision 138 of the Evidence Act provided that: Order of scrutinies and way of re-examination 138. ( 1 ) Witnesses shall be first examined-in-chief. so. if the inauspicious party so desires. cross-examined so. if the party naming them so desires. re-examined. ( 2 ) The scrutiny and cross-examination must associate to relevant facts. but the cross-examination need non be confined to the facts to which the informant testified on his examination-inchief. ( 3 ) The re-examination shall be directed to the account of affairs referred to in cross-examination ; and if new affair is. by permission of the tribunal. introduced in re-examination. the inauspicious party may foster cross-examine upon that affair. ( 4 ) The tribunal may in all instances permit a informant to be recalled either for farther examination-in-chief or for farther cross-examination. and if it does so. the parties have the right of farther cross-examination and re-examination severally. It is banal that there is an duty on the defense mechanism during the phase of cross-examination to set all inquiry that are relevant and known to the peculiar informant. which the accused intends to trust upon his defense mechanism to enable the informant a opportunity to hold or differ with the defense mechanism instance. In the instance of Paramasivam v PP [ 3 ] . The issue of before this instance is whether the erudite justice was right in declining to let a prosecution informant. to be cross examined. advocate for the accused asked that he be allowed to cross-examine the informant before the opinion was made and that in the involvement of justness she should be allowed to finish her grounds. He was denied the chance asked for. The tribunal so ruled that the informant was successfully impeached by the prosecution and that her grounds would non be considered. But. on the entreaty phase. the appeal tribunal held that the defense mechanism should at all times be allowed the chance of supporting within the well-established rules of adversary test as against the inquisitorial system. and where there isprima facie a valid ailment. nevertheless thin it might be. it must be entertained. In this instance. the tribunal had repressing the strong belief and telling a retrial. Meanwhile. in PP V Munusamy [ 4 ] . it was held that the refusal to let a informant for the prosecuting officer who had been impeached to be cross-examined by the accused did non represent a misdirection and even if it was. the Federal Court has power to disregard the entreaty. as there was no failure of justness. The respondent in this instance had been convicted by the erudite magistrate for an offense under subdivision 197 of the Penal Code. One of the points submitted by the defense mechanism before the Federal Court was that paragraph ( vitamin E ) allows him to cross-examine every prosecution informant. Therefore. when witness PW 16 was impeached by the prosecution. an application by the defense mechanism to cross-examine that informant should hold been allowed. Refusal to let such application was fatal to the proceedings. Harmonizing to the Federal Court. after the rulling made by the erudite magistrate to impeach the recognition of PW 16. that informant was longer a informant for the prosecution in the existent sense of the word for his grounds no longer constituted any portion of the prosecution instance. Even should at that place be a misdirection. since there was no failure of justness occasioned thereby the entreaty should be dismissed. In other instance of Dato’ Mokhtar Hashim V PP [ 5 ] . the tribunal held that the order made by the learned test justice in impeaching the recognition of the informant Abdullah bin Ambek and denying the right to advocate for all the accused to cross-examine him was clearly incorrect. Here. the Federal Court decided that when impeachment proceedings have been completed. no rulling should be made as to the credibleness of the informant. This should be done merely after all witness prosecution have been called and given grounds at the terminal of the prosecution’s or defense mechanism instance. It would follow that harmonizing to this ulterior position. when a prosecution informant had impeachment proceedings completed against him. he may still be cross-examined by the defense mechanism. We can see that all the three chief instances that have been mention by me above. it were held that all the Judgess agree that the defense mechanism advocate can cross-examine the prosecut ion informant although the impeachment proceeding had completed them. It showed us that the cross-examine procedure is so of import to the right of the parties particularly the right of an accused. In PP V Abang Abdul Rahman [ 6 ] it was held that whenever a informant is non cross-examined. his grounds should be accepted. The other party to the proceedings accepts the grounds and the tribunal should likewise accept it. In Wong Swee Chin V PP [ 7 ] . Raja Azlan Shah. CJ held that the failure to cross-examine a informant on material point of the instance will amount to an credence of the witness’s testimony. Meanwhile. the importance of cross-examine the informant besides held in the Indian instance like in AEG Carapiet V AY Derderian [ 8 ] . the tribunal stated that it is hence of import for the accused to set his indispensable and material instance to the prosecution informant in cross-examination. In subdivision 256 of the Indian Criminal Procedure Code. and as besides same as mentioned in the caseBiswas V Stated [ 9 ] . the tribunal held that an accused has an abosolute right to further cross-exam prosecution informant although they have been exhaustively cross-examined before the charge. In decision. by mentioning to the new position of the chief instance of Dato’ Mokhtar Hashim we can understand that the cross-examine can be allowed although the impeachment proceeding against the prosecution informant or defense mechanism informant had completed. KUALA LUMPUR: The High Court has allowed the prosecution to impeach former Cabinet curate Tan Sri Abdul Kadir Sheikh Fadzir over his credibleness in relation to a contradiction between his testimony and his statement to patrol over the concluding monetary value of the land for Port Klang Free Zone ( PKFZ ) undertaking. The tribunal will hear entries by parties on point of jurisprudence on Monday to determine if the defense mechanism has the right to acquire the full statement of Abdul Kadir for impeachment proceedings. Justice Ahmadi Asnawi Friday granted the application by lead prosecuting officer DPP Datuk Tun Abdul Majid Tun Hamzah under Section 155 of the Evidence Act to impeach Abdul Kadir over his credibleness. The justice held that there was a material contradiction in grounds given by Abdul Kadir in the tribunal and his statement to the constabulary under Section 112 of the Criminal Procedure Code ( CPC ) . â€Å"I have observed the grounds given by this informant ( Abdul Kadir ) sing the monetary value of the land where he stated that RM1. 088bil should be added with an involvement rate. â€Å"I have observed what he has stated in his constabulary statement under Section 112 of the CPC. I find it to be material ( contradiction ) and you can continue to impeach him. † Justice Ahmadi ruled. Tun Abdul Majid said Abdul Kadir. in his statement to the constabulary. stated that it would decidedly be a concluding monetary value if Cabinet had decided on the monetary value of the land and it was a normal pattern to convey back to the Cabinet if there was any alteration to it. He said Abdul Kadir had given grounds in the Tun Dr Ling Liong Sik test that the monetary value of the land at RM25 per square pess. covering an country of 1. 000 estates deserving RM1. 088bil. was non a concluding monetary value as it had to be added with an involvement of 7. 5 % . When questioned farther by the deputy public prosecuting officer. Abdul Kadir admitted to hold made a statement to investigating-cum-recording officer Supt R. Rajagopal on July 6 last twelvemonth at 1. 45pm. â€Å"I h ave signed it so I have made the statement to the constabulary. † he said. His attorney Chong Loong Men. who held a watching brief. applied to be given a transcript of the full statement of his client in order to explicate to the tribunal the context in which he would hold given such a statement. Dr Ling’s lead advocate Wong Kian Kheong besides applied for a transcript of the full statement to help the tribunal to do a proper determination in the impeachment proceedings. Upon oppugning Friday. Abdul Kadir said it was non neccesary to convey back to the Cabinet for blessing if there were alterations in the figure on the concluding monetary value as the Finance Ministry was sometimes given the power to do determinations. He said the term concluding monetary value was non normally used in the Cabinet as there was uncertainness on other facets. â€Å"The Government merely approved basal monetary value. The Government gives importance to the officers who will find other eventful facets. The term concluding monetary value is non accurate. † he added. On March 9. Dr Ling. 69. was ordered to come in his defense mechanism over three charges of rip offing the Government in relation to the PKFZ undertaking. Dr Ling was alleged to hold deceived the Government by non uncovering to the Cabinet an extra involvement rate of 7. 5 % yearly in the RM1. 088bil ( at RM25psf ) purchase of the land for the PKFZ undertaking at the Prime Minister’s Office in Putrajaya between Sept 25. 2002 and Nov 6. 2002. Dr Ling besides claimed test to two alternate charges of rip offing. which carry a lesser punishment. Abdul Majid told the justice subsequently that the prosecution would be objecting to the defence’s application to name Prime Minister Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak as a defense mechanism informant. Talking to newsmans subsequently. Dr Ling said he would subpoena Najib and former premier curates Tun Dr Mahathir Mohamad and Tun Abdullah Ahmad Badawi in his defense mech anism instance. Dr Mahathir is scheduled to look on Monday.

Psychology Brain Disorders

Introduction Memory is a physiological attribute probably in all living things. In this paper, human memory is the primary concern and focus. The famous psychologist of the 19th century described human memory as a number of single phenomena connected into a whole.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Psychology: Brain Disorders specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Arguably, human beings bind strongly on the connective power to reach their past remembrance, which in turn creates the individual personality (Rasmussen Bernstern, 2010). Without the connecting power, every single phenomena of a memory will fall apart into many fragments causing memory impairment (Vanderkerckhove Panksepp, 2009). Psychogenic amnesia is the medical term used to describe impaired memory i.e. reduced ability to process stored information (Staniloiu et al., 2010). Autobiographical memory is defined as an integrated part of a number of me mory systems possessing different functions in human information processing. Autonoetic consciousness refers to the recollection of the mental re-enactment of past events and self-awareness (Nadine Markowitsch, 2007). This term was introduced in 1995 by Endel Tulving. Therefore, assigning the term autonoetic consciousness to the phenomena of psychogenic amnesia implies that an individual’s autobiographical memory is impaired and thereby such a patient displays damaged autonoetic (self) awareness. Such a patient fails to recollect any entity over time and therefore he or she is unable to connect to the old and new autonoetic memories (Irish et al., 2008). Therefore, this paper aims to discuss the role of autonoetic consciousness in autobiographical memory with particular reference to psychogenic amnesia. The discussion commences with a brief explanation of how the human memory functions. This will facilitate the understanding how autonoetic consciousness aids the autobiograph ical memory in psychogenic amnesia disorder.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Human Memory As mentioned earlier, memory is not unitary but rather it is dividend along content and time. Memory can be categorized into neuropsychological memory and biographical memory (Vanderkerckhove Panksepp, 2009). Neuropsychological memory is divided into short term and long-term memories. Short-term memory is responsible for holding information such as telephone numbers and other related few bits of information of time ranging between seconds and minutes. Anything else beyond this is stored in the long-term memory. Recently, working memory was introduced by Alan Baddeley (Ros et al., 2010). This memory stores information related with the information which is new or old whenever required. When an event takes place leading to biochemical alterations of or damages brain tissue, it may cha nge the brain’s network of information processing such that the victim is unable to encode new information or retrieve the stored information (Markoswitsch, 2008). Endel Tulving classified memory as habit (routines and procedures) and memory (acquiring new facts and objects). Later on, he distinguished memory as semantic and episodic memory. Semantic memory is the one responsible for storing general knowledge whilst episodic memory is responsible of storing information required within time and place episodes. Later, Tulving and colleagues added further memory systems including automatic, implicit, subconscious, procedural, and priming system memory. Later, they added a new memory system referred to perceptual memory, which described the acts of reaching judgment due to familiarity. For example, an individual is able is to distinguish between peach and pear (Vanderkerckhove Panksepp, 2009; Marie, 2009). Autobiographical memory is defined as the integrated part of a number of memory systems possessing different functions in the human information processing (Noulhiane et al., 2008). This topic has been debated since the onset of brain research. However, there is a current compromise reached by researchers to reflect brain memory organization in a more realistic manner (Dalan et al., 2008; Dubios, 2010). It is assumed that information enters the brain through the sensory organs, and then it is processed according to the kind of information and process triggered. Therefore, subconsciously processed information either is directed to unimodal neocortical structures (priming) or engages the basal ganglia premotor (procedural learning).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on Psychology: Brain Disorders specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More On the other hand, consciously processed information recruits broad networks responsible for perceptual learning including limbic regions for autobiographic al episodic- memory (AEM) and the knowledge system. The incoming information is first received by limbic structures where its relevance is extracted, compared with the existing stored information and later bound or integrated with them through a process known as synchronization. Further consolidation occurs during sleeping and this may extend to years. Storage of the information is done by the cerebral cortex (Owen Coleman, 2010; Van Djik et al., 2008). Storing of information is not done in one single step rather the new information is compared with the existing, leading to reconsolidation and new storage in the context of the previous consolidation. Retrieval of stored information (facts and events) requires engagement of almost three closely related networks including activation of the brain stem structures that comprises of portions of the reticular activating system, the main information of the respective activity containing neocortical network and the limbic networks which enh ance information by adding emotional flavor. Encoding of information is based on hierarchal arrangements of memory systems (Nadine Markowitsch, 2007). Autobiographical episodic memory, autonoetic consciousness, and psychogenic amnesia Psychogenic amnesia has been studied since the 19th century to provide evidence for the significant influence of AEM. The word Amnesia is a Greek word used to describe the most severe form of memory impairment. Psychogenic amnesia refers to a disorder/syndrome showing the inability to learn new information or retrieve previously learnt information in an alert and responsive person in absence of other cognitive impairments (Kumar et al., 2007; Locke et al., 2006).Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Traditionally, the term psychogenic disorder was used to describe episodes of retrograde or ant-retrograde memory loss (AEM) resulting from psychological stress or in absence of brain damage. This impairment is reversible. Most studies reveal a high percentage of recovery within the first month of Amnesia (Powell et al., 2007). Recent studies however, have shown a prolonged course of memory recovery in a number of patients suffering from psychogenic memory loss. Examples of psychogenic disorders include dissociative identity disorder (DID), Ganser syndrome, dissociative fatigue, anxiety disorders, post traumatic stress disorders (PTSD), personality disorders, such as borderline disorders and dissociative trans disorders. Dissociative memory disorder symptoms include hyper-amnesia (flashbacks) or amnesia (Neumann et al., 2007; Serra et al., 2007). The first scientists to describe this condition used the term â€Å"hysteria† which was later coined to â€Å"dissociation† arguing that memories were processed based on the association of a past event concept, hence, the patients fail to retrieve them due to dissociation. Additionally, they argued that subconscious memories are associated with emotions and thoughts, which are blocked from conscious awareness but influence behaviors such as prolonged disability to deal with a reality. The dissociations are caused by traumatizing events such as sexual assaults, domestic violence that may, or may not cause head injury (Saito et al., 2007). Apart from this, the patients display an inappropriate lack of concern about their symptoms, which was referred to as belle indifference (Barsics Serge, 2010; Cragar et al., 2006). The patients are often unable to regulate emotions or to demonstrate emotional engagement towards the environment. This leads to a conclusion that the patients can be treated through emotional processing abilities and autonoetic awareness to the retrieval of memories and it is a useful hint i n the diagnosis of psychogenic disorders (Magno Allan, 2007). Autobiographical Episodic Memory (AEM) is closely connected to autonoetic consciousness (Striacciari et al., 2008). The term autonoetic refers to self conscious/self aware; noetic refers to aware and anoetic refers to unaware (Lemogne et al., 2009). These terms were introduced by Endel Tulving in 1995. He defined autonoetic consciousness as the capacity that enables an individual to mentally reflect and become aware of his protracted existence across subjective time. Research has outlined AEM to occur in the context of the attaining new stages of self-understanding and self-awareness. AEM is identified to be significantly important in the current individualized societies because it facilitates in maintaining a consistent feeling of identity to the individuals and thereby, creating a coherent self-awareness and continuity over time. According to Tulving findings, AEM is viewed as a threefold cord, which results from †Å"the uniting of subjective time, autonoetic consciousness and the experiencing self† (Staniloiu et al., 2010, p.778). Therefore, this makes AEM important issue in psychiatry and psychoanalysis field. There has been various investigations on the role of AEM’s in one’s sense self coherence and ability to reconstruct oneself such as patients suffering from psychogenic amnesia (Vattakatuchery Chesterman, 2006). The conceptualization of AEM has been revised heavily over the years. Episodic memory system is viewed to be equivalent to the AEM system. One characteristic of AEM is the mental time travelling on the subjective time in order to connect the past with the current memory status. It is the last feature of AEM that is fully functional (Nadine Markowitsch, 2007). However, it is the first feature to be affected by amnesic disorders. This system requires a high level of self awareness- autonoetic consciousness. The designations autobiographical and episodic are o ften used interchangeably, however, it is important to note that not all autobiographical memories are episodic. There are two autobiographical memories namely episodic and semantic (Staniloiu et al., 2010). Autobiographical semantic memories deal mainly with automatic personal knowledge such as names, date of birth etc. Such personal knowledge is sometimes preserved, relearned, or updated even in presence of semantic autobiographical memory impairment. Therefore, the reason why some patients suffer AEM impairments but still recollect their personal identity is that their autobiographic semantic memory remains intact (Gardiner, 2001). Literature indicates that AEM develops ontogenetically and is unique to every human being. Of all other memory systems, AEM is the most vulnerable to neural impairments. Additionally, it is susceptible to distortions, misinformation, and dynamic transformation and reshaping. Therefore, stressful events can lead to disturbances of integrated arrangement s of memory, perception, consciousness, and identity creating dissociative disorders (Staniloiu et al., 2010). Additionally, Theory of Mind (ToM), AEM, and autonoetic consciousness are correlated during the ontogenetic developments. ToM is defines as the ability to make inferences and personal attributes (beliefs, desires, feelings etc) regarding the mental states during the development /growth stages. Children pass the mirror recognition test between 16-24 months (Nadine Markowitsch, 2007). This marks the transition of a core self-identity to a cognitive self. In this domain, children understand certain aspects of their mind at an early age but attain the standard false belief at the ages of four. It is also the age at which the child gets his/her meta-representational abilities through experimental awareness and meta-representational self consciousness though relational between what the child knows and what other sources say. According to ToM, it is a critical step to understand and develop abilities. Therefore, it can be affirmed that between the age of three and five years, children develop the ability to recall explicit events experienced. However, it is not well known when children begin to retrieve information on autobiographical semantic memory or become autonoetical conscious that they are actually able to recollect the past events through AEM system. However, at this age kids have abundant and explicit personal information (Piolino et al., 2003a). Experiencing past episodic events implies that one has the ability to encode specific information related to specific feelings which occurred within particular contexts. This autobiographical journey is filled with pervasive emotional atmospheres of the time, place, and event. Episodic memory depends mainly on the encoding and re-consolidation of the abundant differentiated elements remembered during the context. The reactivations of such memories in the future involves time travelling (i.e. re-experiencin g) the flow of past events within the individuals’ subjective time. Episodic memories refer to the ability to recollect information regarding past events. The information includes emotions experienced during those events and a realistic time line of when the events occurred (Staniloiu et al., 2010). The process also involves the ability to recall a particular event or interaction as the main point of reference in order to determine whether the recollections were experienced before. The recollections of the memory is guided apparently by other factors such as great self relevance, unique feelings experienced, thoughts, goals or behaviors. AEM are the foundations of autonoetic consciousness because they are a recollections and mental re-enactment of past events experienced by an individual (Nadine Markowitsch, 2007). However, as described above, the past information is capable of undergoing reconsolidation and reshaping due to remembering of new situational context, making wis hful fulfillments’ or other emotional forces triggered to add flavor to the event. Additionally, re-organization of information can occur when an individual is traumatized or undergoing very stressful condition. This causes mental activities dissociations disorders where the patient memory is impaired. Such disorders are categorized in DSM-IV-TR to all disorders with symptoms of central inability to recall important personal knowledge after a traumatizing event resulting to psychogenic amnesia. The condition is augmented by the degree of stress resulting from the traumatizing event (Piolino et al., 2003b). Conclusion The conceptualization of AEM has been intensively revised over years. One characteristic of AEM is the mental time travelling on the subjective time in order to connect the past with the current memory status. 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